Radaelli's Military Campaign in 1859

If you have read Jacopo Gelli's short biography of Giuseppe Radaelli, you may remember that he served in the Monferrato Light Cavalry Regiment in the 1859 campaign against the Austrian Empire. Today I'm going to go over some of the details of that service, including an account of his squadron's action in the Battle of San Martino written by the commanding captain.

Much of this information comes from a 1908 book named Patria Esercito Re ('Homeland, Army, King') by Leopoldo Pullè, which is essentially an autobiography of his proud military career. Most importantly for us, though, is that in 1859 he served in the same squadron as our Giuseppe Radaelli.

Leopoldo Pullè

At the beginning of 1859, tensions between Piedmont-Sardinia and the Austrian Empire were reaching an all-time high due to the large military mobilisation taking place in Piedmont with their ally France (for a more detailed run-down of the political situation at this time I would encourage you to do your own reading on the Italian Risorgimento). Piedmont-Sardinia and France were mobilising for war against Austria in an effort to unite the Italian Peninsula. By February 1859 rumours of the coming war were all through the streets of Milan, which was then in the Austrian dominion.

With the great desire to see the Austrians kicked out of their homeland, about a dozen Milanese men, including Radaelli and Pullè, decided to flee Milan to avoid possible conscription in the Austrian army and to instead volunteer in the Piedmontese army. They crossed the Ticino River and went to Vigevano, where the Monferrato Light Cavalry was posted, the second squadron of which being under the command of Captain Gerolamo Avogadro. With more and more volunteers joining them in Vigevano over the coming weeks, Avogadro had the task of turning them into effective cavalry soldiers. Among their intensive training over the following months, Avogadro taught them a method of thrusting on horseback that was supposedly of his own invention. Here is how Pullè describes its execution:

The man on horseback, with his sabre in hand, had to prop himself up on the stirrups, tighten his knees, rise from the saddle, turn the left hand over and grip the horse’s withers between the thumb and index finger, and thus by leaning the body as far forward as possible, he strikes, then immediately goes back into guard.

This description closely resembles the method of thrusting on horseback described in the 1873 Cavalry Regulations, which was the implementation of Radaelli's sabre system on horseback. It seems possible, then, that Avogadro's method had some influence on Radaelli.

With their training completed and war being declared at the end of April, the volunteers joined the Monferrato Cavalry's 2nd squadron, with Avogadro taking command. The Monferrato regiment consisted of four squadrons, each with about 100 men. For a few weeks these four squadrons provided protection and reconnaissance as the Austrian army attempted to out-manoeuvre the French and Piedmontese armies. Once the majority of the French forces had arrived by mid May, however, the Austrians started pulling back eastward, at which point the allied forces took the offensive.

The allied forces were victorious in several engagements over the next month, with two squadrons of the Monferrato cavalry taking part in the Battle of Montebello; however, it wouldn't be until the 24th of June that Radaelli's squadron would take part in any action. On this day in eastern Lombardy, the French-Piedmontese forces unexpectedly came into contact with the Austrians. The engagements took place over a front of about 18 km centring on the town of Solferino, from which the battle takes its name. The Italians, however, engaged the Austrians about 7 km to the north of Solferino, near the town of San Martino. Below is the report written by Captain Avogadro himself, addressed to the regimental commander Alberto La Forest de Divonne, of his squadron's action on that day:

During the day of the 24th June, at about 12 o'clock, Your Lordship commanded me to escort the 5th Battery commanded by Captain di Bassecourt. When the battery was in position, one section was protecting its left flank, the other its right flank. With the retreat ordered, a platoon of each section spread out in open order to cover and protect the retreat of the artillery and a few battalions of the Pinerolo Brigade, who carried out a textbook retreat under deadly fire. In this action I lost the brave soldier Noirat, who was severely wounded in the thigh and died immediately after the surgical operation; his horse died on the spot. I am very grateful to be able to report to the commander of the Corp that the soldiers all kept a praiseworthy composure, even though it was the first time they had truly been under fire. The lieutenant Count Girolamo Fè conducted himself admirably well; not only by staying firm, but by showing great intelligence in transporting his section where it was needed, in due time; especially since a gun controlled by his section was missing its limber due to it having left a moment earlier for ammunition. Sergeant Martinoli distinguished himself in helping and guiding the young scouts and was the last to retreat, not wanting to leave the field without leading Noirat to safety. In order to inform Your Lordship well of each individual, one should not omit saying a few words of praise for the medic in 2nd [Squadron], who tended to several wounds under cannon fire, ahead of his squadron, and was admired by those who saw him.
The scout platoon on the right side commanded by the brave Cav. Della Rovere advanced to the right, and being informed by the infantry that a farmstead was occupied by the Austrians, they took action. Sergeant Crescio was the first, then Cav. Della Rovere accompanied by Corporal Contat, volunteer soldier Pullè, Corporal Ravoire, and soldiers Rischis, Deambrogio, and Mandreri; and they forced fifteen Tyroleans including their captain to surrender.
The captain handed over his sabre and sash to Cav. Della Rovere, the prisoners were divided with the infantry, and our men continued to hastily push back many Tyroleans who were harassing in the countryside.
With the retreat ended, and after a brief rest, the squadron resumed its escort of the 5th Battery; and if I am not mistaken, at around 4 o’clock, seeing that the infantry, tired and weary, were retreating in somewhat conspicuous groups, I brought the left section forward, and through cries and good example my soldiers encouraged their brothers-in-arms to move forward. On this occasion I lost the soldier Rasino, struck in the head by a ball. The volunteer soldier Franchelli, who stayed out of rank for special service, distinguished himself on every occasion. He rallied many deserters and once succeeded in leading a very large group onto the Bianca farmstead with the cry: Long live the King!
The section commanded by Count Fè encouraged other squads to advance. At the last slope the charge was struck by three cannons, but the death of Colonel Carminati rendered our efforts vain. The artillery advanced greatly. After a brief rest, helped rather strongly from the left through the effective use of artillery directed by Major Thaon di Revel, the position was finally occupied.
The artillery took position; part of the infantry too, and I—with the consent of the head of general staff Cav. Ricotti—brought myself along with the whole squadron to the right flank of the artillery, as it was the weakest side, covering myself with the slope of the hill.
The cannons on both sides had almost stopped firing; only the musketry on the right flank made itself heard. When this suddenly became stronger, and our exhausted infantry hastily retreated, I immediately sent out a request for assistance, and seeing the position so strongly threatened, I immediately sent Cav. Della Rovere, with the platoon in open order, to cover our retreat. Having seen myself that I had to deal with more than 500 men, I brought forward the whole squadron and had them charge in a column against the Austrians, perpendicular to our right flank. After the first charge I rallied the squadron, and charging towards our front I managed to sweep up the plateau and drive them back to the valley. The few infantry that were still found on the plateau pursued the enemy and victory was sealed with the cry of Long live the King and Long live Monferrato.
Everyone did their duty, but yet there were those who distinguished themselves among the good ones. Della Rovere’s horse was wounded and died the next day. This young man was admirable all day. Sergeant Crescio and the volunteer Franchelli did as much as they humanly could, and even the former, wounded in the first charge, carried on the second charge and only withdrew on the order of his captain. Corporal Chaperon, the bugler Giaj-via, corporals Feroglio, Rossi, and Astesiano; Sergeant Martinoli, volunteer Radaelli, Turati, soldier Gamba, Corporal Contat, Corporal Beauquis, Corporal Raviore, Corporal Domange, soldier Colletta, soldier Cucaredo, and volunteer Pullè. In short, it was a true challenge; everyone wanted to be the best.
Colonel, I am glad to also have been able to add a laurel leaf to the crown already made in Montebello, work which will not be the last.

For this action at San Martino, Avogadro was awarded the Gold Medal of Valour and the squadron was 'put on the order of the day' by the army (essentially equivalent to a mention in dispatches). As we can also see at the end of this account, both Pullè and Radaelli are given honourable mentions by Avogadro for having performed admirably in the day's action. Radaelli and Avogadro would continue to be in contact following the war, with both of them serving in the Monferrato Cavalry again in 1866. When Settimo Del Frate (who also volunteered with the cavalry in 1859) wrote his 1868 manual on Radaelli's sabre system, it was dedicated to one Colonel Gerolamo Avogadro.

Pasteggio and Radaelli's Sabre Grip

In Jacopo Gelli's 1888 publication Resurrectio, he quotes one of Radaelli's supposedly famous phrases:

"Pasteggiare la sciabola."

To try and translate this phrase, we should first consult the dictionary definition of the verb pasteggiare, which is "to eat/drink something slowly and savouring". Simplifying this as "to savour", would thus give us a literal translation of "Savour the sabre".

The related word pasteggio is also mentioned in two other Radaellian texts (to my knowledge) as being a concept that describes Radaelli's particular manner of gripping the sabre. The most notable mention of this word being in Luigi Barbasetti's sabre treatise, in the English version (1932) giving a possible translation of pasteggio as "fingering".

This certainly does not make the task of interpreting Radaelli's phrase much easier, but it does seem to imply a sense of control and moderation, not "devouring" the grip in the entire hand with too much force. Perhaps this terminology was used as a response to a misconception of Radaelli's system, exemplified in Achille Angelini's 1877 and 1888 essays criticising Radaelli’s system where he states that Radaelli supposedly taught to grip the sabre with "great and incessant force".

As there does not seem to be any existent in-depth explanation of Radaelli's pasteggio, our only option is to look at how Radaelli said to grip the sabre to perhaps inform our interpretation of this concept. In Del Frate's 1876 text we get the following explanation of how to grip the sabre:

"The sabre must be held such that the grip is embedded in the palm of the hand, the first four fingers enclosed around it, with the thumb along the back of the grip, the end of the grip somewhat protruding from the hand, finding there a point of support when one strikes a blow with the edge."

This seems to be describing a fairly standard sabre grip for the time, and does not really give much to go on in deciphering pasteggio. If we refer to his earlier 1868 manual however, we get a slightly wording:

"The sabre is always gripped such that the grip is embedded in the palm of the hand, always shut firmly by the first four fingers, with the thumb stretched to its full length along the back of the grip, and with the end of backstrap somewhat protruding from the grassello of the little finger, serving as a point of secondary support when striking a blow."

What is meant by "the grassello of the little finger" ("dal grassello del mignolo") is uncertain. The word grassello translates literally as "a small piece of meat", but it seems clear that it is referring to a fleshy or soft part of the little finger. This same word is used in Rossi's 1885 description of how to grip the sabre (which is extremely similar to Del Frate's 1868 description):

"The sabre must be gripped in a way such that the grip lies encased in the palm of the hand, always enclosed by the first four fingers, with the thumb extended along the spine of the grip, the lower end of which protruding from the hand, in order to find there a point of resistant support against the grassello of the little finger when one strikes a blow with the edge."

We also see it used in the 1873 Cavalry Regulations, which taught a distilled version of Radaelli's sabre system for cavalry troopers:

"The sabre will be gripped such that the grip is embedded in the palm of the hand, always enclosed by the first four fingers, with the thumb extended along the spine of the grip and with the end of the thumb against the shell of the guard (and for the new sabre model, with the end of the thumb inside the shell’s chamber) so that the hand is brought as close as possible to the sabre’s centre of gravity. The end of the grip will protrude somewhat under the left grassello of the hand for important support when one strikes a blow."

Perhaps what the grassello del mignolo is referring to is actually the hypothenar eminence, the muscle group of the palm below the little finger. In fact in 1888 Salvatore Arista wrote an article in the magazine Don Giovanni where he describes Radaelli's sabre grip, referring to this very muscle group:

"[Radaelli] taught to grip the sabre not like a stick, but rather keeping the thumb and the index finger as close possible to the guard, the other fingers and the hand acting in such a way that the end of the grip rests permanently against the lower — hypothenar — eminence of the hand, with that one is able to stop the blow at the desired point on the target."

** EDIT: Since acquiring Poggio Vannucchi's 1915 treatise, detailing a Radaellian sabre method, I have noticed that Vannucchi himself equates the grassello del mignolo with the hypothenar eminence in the section where he describes how to grip the sabre. This seems to confirm my hypothesis. **

This description is much more specific than those previously mentioned, yet it is also consistent with how Radaelli's other students prescribed to grip the sabre.

Masiello (1887):

"The last four fingers are inserted together between the guard and the handle and they are adapted under the grip, such that the upper part of the last phalanx of the index finger lies against the shell. The thumb is placed on top of the backstrap and in contact with the shell. The backstrap must lean against the hypothenar eminence of the hand, such that the upper of which protrudes somewhat out of the hand, similar to having there a secure point of support in the act of cutting. The hand must grip the handle with force."

Barbasetti (1936 translation):

"Place the second phalanx of the four fingers opposing the thumb, directly against the interior of the grip, your index finger close to the guard; let the lower part of the back of the grip rest against the palm of your hand and apply the thumb against the flat part of the back of the grip near the guard."

Pecoraro & Pessina (1912):

"The sabre must be gripped in a way that the thumb extends along the spine of the grip and lightly contacts the guard, making a contrast with the other finger bending around the grip, placing the last phalanx of the index finger in contact with the guard and the extreme end of the grip rests against the hypothenar eminence of the hand and protrudes a little past the hand. This method allows gripping the sabre with the force and elasticity necessary, either for making effective and precise blows, or for opposing resistant parries to the opposing blade."

Nor does this seem to have been the standard sabre grip outside the Radaelli school. In both Arista's 1888 Don Giovanni article and his 1884 publication Del progresso della scherma in Italia he states that this gripping method was unique to the Radaelli school, and he laments over the fact that the new school run by Parise goes back to the old way of gripping the sabre "like a stick".

In saying all this though, there is still the large possibility that Radaelli introduced this gripping method after the publication of Del Frate's 1876 manual, which would explain the somewhat less precise description of gripping the sabre contained in his manuals, describing perhaps just the standard sabre grip. Nevertheless due to Arista's comments and the grip's prevalence in the manuals of Radaelli's students, it seems certain that Radaelli was advocating his own unique method of gripping the sabre by the time he died, and that this unique method somehow helped the fencer to grip the sabre with pasteggio, giving them "the possibility of giving the sabre at each moment the desired position, with full control and mastery of the blade", as Barbasetti put it.